How the New York Times Covered the Rise and Fall of Fascism

The New York Times on the Rise of Fascism in Europe

Protesters march in New York against fascism, 1934 (Sueddeutsche Zeitung Photo / Alamy)

Featured here are articles and editorials published in The New York Times between 1922 and 1945. They chronicle the spread of fascism throughout Europe and the resulting upheaval, beginning with Benito Mussolini taking power in Italy. As time progressed and dictatorships proliferated across the continent, journalists and politicians wondered whether another world war was approaching.

1922 - 1929

31 October 1922 – Mussolini Forms Cabinet for Italy With Fascisti Aids

1 November 1922 – 'Black Shirts' Hold a Roman Triumph in Assuming Power

21 November 1922 – New Popular Idol Rises in Bavaria

7 December 1922 – Threat to Muzzle the Italian Press Is Made in Mussolini's Milan Paper

21 January 1923 – Hitler New Power in Germany

22 July 1923 – The Swashbuckling Mussolini: Latest Heir of the Caesars Has Conquered Because His Countrymen Understand Arrogance

10 November 1923 – Hitler an Alien Agitator: A Sign Painter from Austria, He Built Up Bavarian Fascisti

13 October 1924 – All Italy With Him, Mussolini Asserts: After Contact With the "People's Naked Soul" He Scorns Infinitesimal Opposition

6 February 1927 – "What is Fascism — and Why?" by H. G. Wells

3 March 1928 – Mussolini Rejects Democratic Rule

15 April 1928 – Mussolini Says Fascism Will Live Long After He is Gone

16 March 1929 – Trotsky Sees Us Causing World War: He Says Power of America Will Bring a Conflict That Will Dwarf the Last Great War

18 August 1929 – The Future of Europe's Nine Dictatorships

"Dr. Goebbels, through his control of the press, 'whipped the German people into that fanatical frenzy necessary to the savage purposes of the Nazi dictator'" (March 11, 1945)

1930 - 1932

15 September 1930 – Fascists Glorify Pan-German Ideal: Stand for Ultra-Nationalism, Restrictions on Foreigners and Anti-Semitism

21 September 1930 – Hitler, Driving Force in Germany's Fascism: His Fiery Oratory Has Won Men of All Classes to Support Doctrine of "National Bolshevism"

26 September 1930 – Hitler Would Scrap Versailles Treaty and Use Guillotine

26 September 1930 – Hitler's Outburst Stirs British Press: German Fascist Chief is Called 'Feather-Headed Demagogue' — Hope Put in Hindenburg

27 September 1930 – Hitler's Rhetoric

28 December 1930 – German Leaders Divided on Nazis: Middle Party Leaders Favor Forcing Fascists Into Cabinet as Means of Curbing Them

20 September 1931 – Leaderless Youth of Germany: Cut Adrift From the Old Authority Symbolized by the Throne and the Army and Discontented With Things as They Are, They Turn, Says Ludwig, to Radicalism Both Left and Right

13 December 1931 – Tactics of Hitler: His Self-Assurance a Source of His Power

20 December 1931 – Herr Hitler Replies to Some Fundamental Questions

3 January 1932 – The Nazi Mind: A Study in Nationalism

29 February 1932 – Hitler Protests Alarmist Charges: Complains to Hindenburg About Forecasts of Disturbance if Nazis Win Elections

2 March 1932 – Thyssen Prefers Hitler to the Reds: Ruhr Industrialist, Backer of Nazis, Sees Choice Between Fascism and Communism

10 July 1932 – The Battlecries of Hitlerism Modified as Election Nears

18 September 1932 – Fascism Defined by Mussolini as the Creed of the Century

Map featured in The New York Times on March 27, 1938

1933 - 1934

7 April 1933 – Hitler Challenges American Protests: Asserts We Have Least Right to Attack Anti-Semitism in View of Our Ban on Yellow Race

9 April 1933 – Europe's Propaganda Mills Keep Busy: The Boom in Nationalism Finds Them Influencing Opinion, Often in Opposite Directions, at Home and Abroad

16 April 1933 – Sforza Deplores 'Saber-Rattling': Ex-Foreign Minister of Italy Says Neither Mussolini Nor Hitler Really Wants War

30 April 1933 – Revision of Europe's Treaties a Leading and Baffling Issue

8 May 1933 – Germans Belittle Our 'Dictatorship': Enjoy Comparing Nazis' Rule With Roosevelt's, Wholly to American Disadvantage

23 June 1933 – Hitler Compares His Curbs to Ours: Chancellor Says in Interview that United States Restricts Immigration of Jews; Denies Terror in Reich

22 August 1933 – Germans Anxious Over Our Attitude: Hostility of Other Nations to Nazi Measures Begins to Trouble Them

17 September 1933 – Fascism's Inroads in Europe: A Movement of Many Shades

6 October 1933 – Reich Press Loses Last of Its Rights; Must Serve State

3 December 1933 – [Dr. Earle B. Babcock] Finds War Less Expected In Europe Than We Think — [He] Declares No Government or Responsible Statesman Wants It and Reports Gains in Organizing Peace

8 January 1934 – Nazis Building up Propaganda Here

2 March 1934 – Nazis Now Strive to Propitiate Us: Heed Experts' Advice to Placate American Big Business by Dropping Propaganda Here

19 March 1934 – 60-Year Plan for Italy: Mussolini Says 21st Century Will Be 'Blackshirt Era'

24 April 1934 – Fascists Plan Corporate State In Britain, Mosley Declares

6 May 1934 – Has Democracy Met the Test?

22 June 1934 – Goebbels Berates 'Gentlemen' Critics: Should Have Put Them 'Behind Bars,' He Tells Cheering Workers Outside Berlin

14 August 1934 – Vast New Empire Held Hitler Ideal: He Aims at a Holy Roman Nation of All Germans With Vienna Capital, Says Bérenger

19 August 1934 – Hitler Now World's Supreme Autocrat; Legally Answerable to Nobody for Acts

20 August 1934 – Hitler Endorsed by 9 to 1 Poll on His Dictatorship, but Opposition Is Doubled

7 October 1934 – Concept of Third Reich Begins to Take Reality

10 October 1934 – Outbreaks Greet Fascist Students: Visiting Group Ushered Out of City College Hall After Free-for-All Begins

11 October 1934 – Italian Students Defy N. Y. U. Protest: No Disorder at Hall of Fame as Visitors, Shouting 'Il Duce!' Confront Anti-Fascists

January 15, 1939

1935 - 1939

13 June 1935 – Mussolini Bars New York Times Because of Criticism in Editorial

1 September 1935 – The Man the World Watches: How Does Mussolini's Mind Work? An Effort to Penetrate Behind the Dictator's Mask

29 September 1935 – Mussolini Seeks Advice From None: He Tends More to Isolation and Depends Largely on His Own Judgments — Relies Much on Press

13 October 1935 – Italy Dreams of Empire: Il Duce's Propaganda Campaign Has Turned All Minds to Visions of Old Greatness

5 April 1936 – Is Today Like 1914? The Leaders Upon Whom The World Has Rendered Its Verdict Are Contrasted With Those Who Face the Present Crisis

31 May 1936 – Europe in Propaganda War: Mussolini Seeking to Undermine Britain's Prestige by Means of Radio Broadcasts

22 February 1937 – Change in Hitler's Position is Proceeding Rapidly

2 May 1937 – Can It Happen Here as It Happened Abroad?

26 September 1937 – Mystic and Realist — A Fateful Meeting: Conference of Hitler and Mussolini Brings Together Strongly Contrasting Characters

30 November 1937 – America's Aloofness

26 December 1937 – L'Affaire Mickey Mouse: An Inquiry Into a Plot of World-Wide Scope

15 January 1939 – Channeling the News for Nazis: How the Government, Through the Press, Influences Thought in a Common Direction

21 January 1939 – French in Uproar on Nazism Charge: Rightists in Chamber Resent Ex-Air Minister Cot's Hint of German Propaganda

5 February 1939 – U. S. Urged to Join Anti-Hitler Bloc

23 July 1939 – A Midwest View of the World

From the article "First-Hand Report on the German Soldier," February 18, 1945

1939 - 1945

4 October 1939 – Trotsky Says U. S. Will Join Conflict: Asserts Only Washington Can Get Russia to Shift From Supporting Germany

10 October 1939 – Soviet Editorial on Hitler Peace

19 May 1940 – Italy Dreams of Empire: Street Demonstrators Hope for Colonies as Rome's Reward for Helping Germany

26 May 1940 – Guesses at a German Peace — If Hitler Wins He Is Expected to Make Terms to Satisfy His Many Grudges

2 June 1940 – If Hitler Wins: What It Might Mean to Us

9 June 1940 – U. S. Policy an Enigma, Say Nazis: Claim Amazement at 'Failure' Here to See Their Viewpoint

23 June 1940 – The Battle of Britain: How Will It Be Fought?

30 June 1940 – Reich Plans 'New Order' — Berlin Projects From the Compiegne Armistice a Europe Nazi-Controlled and Directed

31 October 1940 – [Democratic National Committee Chair Edward J. Flynn] Accuses [Wendell Willkie] of Causing South Americans to Fear We Cannot Protect Them — Says He Gets Fascisti Aid

3 November 1940 – Eyes of the World Turn to America's Election — Our Decisive Power in Both War and Peace Fully Recognized Abroad

25 March 1941 – Political Victory Held Hitler's Aim: He Is Believed to Desire to Confront Britain With Peace Consolidating 'New Order' — World Dominion His Goal

6 June 1941 – Hitler Ridicules U. S. Fears, Holds Nazi Attack Wild Idea

9 June 1941 – Hitler on Americas: LIFE Correspondent Interviews Führer on War and the Future (Life magazine)

6 July 1941 – The Growing Union of Hate: As Hitler Extends His Conquests the Continent Is Reduced More and More to Primitive Cruelty

14 December 1941 – World War II: America Enters It

30 January 1943 – Ten Years of Hitler

2 August 1943 – Fall of the Duce — Duce Out, Italy Becomes Prey of Nazis as Well as Allies (Newsweek magazine)

18 February 1945 – First-Hand Report on the German Soldier

11 March 1945 – To Prevent War — No News Blackout

29 April 1945 – Rise and Decline of Hitler — A Cartoon History

5 May 1945 – Montgomery Scorns Nazis, Exults, 'This Is the Moment' (by Bill Downs)

1944. Pierre Lefevre Reports from Brussels

BBC War Correspondent Pierre Lefevre in Belgium

"Pierre Lefevre, a Free French war correspondent, making a broadcast as a Sherman Firefly tank moves up to the battle area, 5 August 1944" (Photo by Bert Hardy – source)

This broadcast transcript by French war correspondent Pierre Lefevre is from Bill Downs' files. The text in parentheses was originally crossed out.

Pierre Lefevre

BBC Brussels

September 11, 1944

Hallo BBC this is Pierre Lefevre reporting from Brussels.

On the east bank of the Albert Canal sharp fighting took place yesterday. Our armoured patrols reached a point 6 miles north of Beeringhem. At a road junction on the way there was a lively encounter, and the enemy fought quite hard.

But the best news of yesterday's fighting is that we have got a bridge intact over the Scheldt—the river Escaut—and our troops have used the river crossing thus find themselves only a mile and a half from the Dutch border. This bridge is near a little village called De Groot barrier. Further south at Bourg-Léopold the fighting goes on, although there seems little hope for the garrison of the Lèopold barracks (as we are on the Albert Canal and as Liège is now firmly in American hands).

The preparations for the battle go on and TAF are already doing their share of the battle, weakening the enemy in every way before the land fight. Off the Flushing peninsula 5 ships of med size were attacked by Typhoons loaded with bombs. None got away: one was destroyed, the other four damaged. On the Rhine, on the Escaut, everywhere barges have been attacked.

And there is no doubt that the fighter-bombers of the TAF must also be putting their pinpoint attacks on enemy HQs into full play. The technique of striking HQ buildings, forward administrative centres, either during the enemy's withdrawal or during his advance, has been largely responsible for the disorganization of the enemy's staff work.

A senior officer of the RAF told me that since D-Day no less than 450 HQs were attacked by our fighter-bombers. In a pit at Landelin, this officer told me he had seen 14 senior German officers buried together. All had been killed in one attack. Yesterday's score for attacks on rail and road transport is high. 5 locomotives were destroyed in the day, 54 were hit. 11 barges were sunk and fifty damaged.

1970. The New Clean Air Act is Signed Into Law

Nixon Signs the Clean Air Act of 1970

"A younger Doug Draper, sporting a gas mask and sign reading; 'If you are not part of the solution, you are part of the pollution', in front of a polluting mill in Welland, Ontario during the first Earth Day," April 22, 1970 (source)

Bill Downs

ABC Washington

December 31, 1970

President Nixon signed into law today congressional legislation that serves notice on the Detroit auto industry to create its own technological revolution—or someone else will.

The Democratic Congress voted, and the Republican administration concurred, that if that nation has the choice of its present gasoline-powered transportation or an atmosphere free from auto exhaust pollution, then the people must opt for clean air.

It's by far the most far-reaching environmental legislation ever enacted in the history of the US, and will affect the lives of every American, the national economy, and even the appearance of the country as investors come up with new designs to meet the deadline for a virtually emission-free car by 1976.

The new law, signed at the White House at noon, specifies that the motor car industry must come up with a new engine by January 1, 1976 which produces 90 percent less carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and other pollutants allowable in the 1971 models.

Although many auto engineers say the five-year deadline is too short a time for such a radical design change-over, the Democratic sponsor of the tough legislation, Maine's Senator Edmund Muskie, insisted Detroit could do the job if it had to—although there is a provision to grant a company a one-year extension on new engine production under certain circumstances.

Ironically, Senator Muskie, a 1972 presidential hopeful, was not invited to the White House bill signing—sure evidence of the political potency of environmental pollution as a developing issue for the elections two years away.

The new Clean Air Act also authorizes a billion dollars over the next three years for research and anti-pollution aid to the states.

In addition, the new law provides for the establishment of national air quality standards, which requires the separate states over the next four to six years to enforce these standards.

Industries or power plants violating the federal standards will be subjected to fines and jailing. And the law gives the government the right to inspect private property, subpoena records, and requires factories to install pollution monitors if violations are suspected.

In signing the new Clean Air Act, President Nixon said 1970 was the year of the beginning of the job of cleaning up the environment. 1971 will be the year for action.

If, as it appears now, the environment will become a major issue in the 1972 race for the White House, there will be action all right as both Democrats and Republicans play to outdo each other at pollution politics, which in this case is the advantage of a two-party system.

With rigid and fair enforcement, only the nation can win.

This is Bill Downs in Washington with "The Shape of One Man's Opinion," a service of ABC News.

1940. Guesses at What Peace Terms Would Look Like If Germany Wins

A Dire Outlook for the World

German police march before Hitler at the Nazi Party Congress rally in Nuremberg, September 10, 1937 (source)

This article is part of a series of posts on how newspapers covered the rise of fascism before and during World War II. In late May 1940, with France on the verge of falling and Britain undertaking the Dunkirk evacuation, the Axis powers looked close to victory. New York Times correspondent George Axelsson considered the question: What will Germany's peace terms entail if the Allies surrender?

From The New York Times, May 26, 1940:

GUESSES AT A GERMAN PEACE

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

If Hitler Wins He Is Expected to Make Terms to Satisfy His Many Grudges

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

By GEORGE AXELSSON

BERLIN, May 25 — If Germany wins this war—and she considers herself on the threshold of victory—the world must look for some sort of reversal of that Westphalian treaty that almost 300 years ago dissolved the old order of the Holy Roman Empire and made Germany a mere patch on Europe's map.

At Versailles the world saw the spectacle of well over fifty nations gathered to share the spoils of victory. The Westphalian documents were signed by only two victors—France and Sweden—and given a German success only the "big four"—Germany, Italy, Russia and Japan—are likely to sign the new treaty, with the possible inclusion of Spain to accept the stewardship of Gibraltar plus a few minor concessions on the North African mainland.

The peace conference, when and if it occurs, under these auspices therefore may be expected to turn out much simpler than the affair at Versailles and certainly more drastic and perhaps, more severe, on the vanquished than was the treaty of Westphalia.

Wide Revenge Expected

Surmises in Nazi quarters as to what a victorious Germany's peace terms would consist of are, of course, only conjecture. But it is reasonable to assume that Herr Hitler has so many grudges against various nations that a successful war will tempt him to avenge not only Versailles but also the treaty that ended the Thirty Year War so disastrously for Germany in 1648.

Should the Nazis win the war, Germany must be seen as the all-powerful guarantor of this new peace which will certainly exclude Britain from any further say in the affairs of the Continent. Germany will reserve for herself the right of interference in the affairs of conquered States with a vote in their councils. The treaty, furthermore, is likely to be incorporated into the fundamental law of those countries and form the basis of their subsequent treaties with the Western Hemisphere, particularly those with the United States.

One German explanation of why Herr Hitler did not wait for victory to reincorporate Belgian Eupen and Malmedy into the Reich to which they belonged before Versailles, was that he wanted to make the population a gift of the "advantages of membership in the German community" against the time of a peace settlement.

Future of Belgium

This provides another argument for those who think the Nazi peace will be hard on the vanquished; it suggests the Belgians will fare as badly as the rest of Germany's enemies. One of the motives of Nazi philosophy as often expounded by party members, at least in private conversation, is that small nations, choosing deliberately to place obstacles in the path of Germany, have no right to an independent existence.

The Germans already predict rather openly that Belgium has been invaded for the last time. They stress the racial and language divisions between the Walloons and "oppressed" Flemings which in turn suggests that Belgium might be split into two, each part separately under German domination with the Reich Army assuming the role of protector against any challenger disputing Germany's rights.

The May 10 memorandum accompanying the invasion specifically stated that the Reich had no intentions on Belgium's sovereignty or form of government. Therefore it is possible that at least the Walloons will be permitted to keep their country and the Royal House, although as a mere vassal.

Holland to Be Reduced

Holland, in a similar predicament, runs the risk of being reduced to the state of a colony.

England, deprived of further influence on the Continent, would likely find herself an isolated kingdom, Ireland would be given complete independence, as would Ulster. It is expected that the British colonies and dominions would decide, or try to decide, their own fate and they might all succeed in doing so with the exception of South Africa, which, there is reason to believe, Herr Hitler will wish to annex to Germany.

India and Australia would be left as prey for covetous neighbors but they would have a chance for independence if they fought for it.

Canada, already enjoying the protection of the Monroe Doctrine, might try independence or solve her problems by soliciting membership in the United States.

The Mediterranean would once more become an Italian sea, of course, at the expense of Gibraltar and Egypt and, it is likely, at that of Yugoslavia and Greece. Just now Bulgaria and Hungary are basking in the sunshine of Italo-German approval as do Spain, Sweden and Denmark.

Baltic and the U. S.

The future of the Baltic basin rests on the degree to which Russo-German friendship is maintained.

It is taken for granted that Herr Hitler will strongly oppose any attempts on the part of the United States to have a finger in the peace pie even as an "unofficial observer." Herr Hitler has often expressed distrust for American diplomacy as far as, in his opinion, it has sought to thwart his plans.

The fate of France in Herr Hitler's new deal remains the least grateful subject for the guesser. Defeat would certainly rob her of the departments of Alpes-Maritimes and the two Savoies in order to deprive her of a favorable frontier against Italy, and further of Corsica and Tunis. Whether she would also lose Alsace-Lorraine is a question that no German feels competent to answer just now.